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Immediate and Delayed Memory Tasks

The Immediate and Delayed Memory Task (IMT/DMT) program is a modified Continuous Performance Test that produces levels of performance that are sensitive to both group differences and pharmacological manipulation, even in high functioning populations. The IMT/DMT is designed to measure response initiation in impulsive behavior.

Immediate and Delayed Memory Tasks

The IMT/DMT is a continuous performance test that was designed to assess impulsive behavior. The Immediate Memory Task involves comparison of consecutively presented number and responding in those instances when the current number matches the number immediately before it (called a correct detection). The Delayed Memory Task similarly involves responding to matching numbers, but the numbers to be compared a separated by a filler sequence (e.g. 12345).

Like all continuous performance tests, the IMT/DMT involves selectively responding target stimuli and avoiding responses to non-target stimuli that are presented in rapid sequence. For many years, continuous performance tests were primarily analyzed in terms of success in identifying target stimuli, which have been interpreted as measuring sustained attention. The characteristics of these test were selected to maximize sensitivity to individual differences in target responding and typically rates of non-target responding were low.

The IMT/DMT was created to test the notion that the non-target responding could be a sensitive measure impulsivity. The parameters of this new continuous performance test were modified so that certain types of non-target responding could be interpreted within a definition of impulsive behavior. The innovation of the IMT/DMT is the inclusion of catch stimuli that are very similar to targets: they match on all but one digit with the target sequence. This is in contrast with other non-target stimuli that are random and share very little overlap with the target. The concept here is that these very similar, catch stimuli, requirea long period of information processing in order to resolve as different from the target. More impulsive individuals will respond to these catch trials more often, because they emit the behavior prior to the completion of information processing. This is called by the authors Response Initiation Impulsivity. Another perspective has been to refer to this type of impulsivity as Rapid Response Impulsivity.

Inclusion of the catch trials and the timing of the stimulus delivery produce a response range that is broad and normally distributed. Additionally, the rates of impulsive responding) were sufficiently high that the test (1) avoids floor effects among higher functioning populations; and (2) is sensitive to detection of not just increases, but also decreases, in impulsive responding in response to an intervention.

IMT/DMT Trial Types

Trial	Definition
Target	number identically matches the number appearing immediate before it
Catch	number differs previous number by only a single digit
Filler	number completely differs from previous number
Distracter	fixed number sequences, typically 12345

IMT/DMT Variable Types

Trial	Definition
Correct Detections	responding to a target trial
Commission Errors	responding to a catch trial
Filler Errors	responding to a filler trial
Distracter Errors	responding to a distracter trial

IMT/DMT Parameters*

Trial	Definition
Task Type	allows the experimenter to select session with both IMT/DMT, IMT only, or DMT only
Stimuli	5 digit numbers
Stimulus Onset/Offset	500 msec
Test Duration	21.5 minutes for IMT/DMT at default settings and 11 minutes for 2 block IMT only or DMT only session
Payment	Participants can be reinforced with points earned or lost based on responses to target, catch, filler, and/or distracter trials

*While these are the default task settings, many aspects of the IMT/DMT stimulus parameters are readily modifiable using the setup screen.

Immediate and Delayed Memory Tasks Setup Screen

Analyses of the Immediate and Delayed Memory Tasks

What variable is used to test impulsivity?

The impulsive responses on the IMT/DMT are commission errors: the responses to the catch stimuli. However, in many populations or treatment settings these commission errors must be interpreted within the context of the overall response rates and accuracy of performance. For this reason, it has often been more useful to report the impulsive response as the ratio of commission errors to correct detections. This formula is defined as: (Number of commission errors / number of catch trials) / (Number of correct detections / number of target trials) How is interpretability of performance assessed? Performance based measures of impulsivity must be evaluated for the interpretability of their scores. While most scores will be interpretable, some data may be excluded when participant cooperation, effort, and/or comprehension is in question.
Evaluation of performance interpretability requires thoughtful examination of responses to the non-impulsive stimuli.

Questions must be asked about how low of correct detection rates and how high of filler error rates are acceptable. There is a range of correct detections reflecting low to high levels of sustained attention. However at some low level of correct responding to target stimuli, there arises uncertainty about the interpretability of performance. If correct detections are too low, it is likely because the participant either did not understand the response requirements of the test or was unable to exert effort to perform the task. In these situations, impulsive performance should not be interpreted. A similar concept applies to filler errors; response rates to the random non-matching should be low, and when they rise too high, again understanding or effort of the participant is called into question.
What are recommended cut-off’s for correct detection and filler error rates?

This really depends on your local population. Having examined large, international datasets with diverse populations, it is apparent that that exclusion criteria must be based on your local population. We encourage you to contact the test authors to develop an algorithm for selecting an inclusion criterion. Additionally, we recommend reporting these criteria as well as the correct detection and filler error rates in publications with the IMT/DMT.

Immediate and Delayed Memory Tasks Bibliography

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Increased impulsivity associated with severity of suicide attempt history in patients with bipolar disorder.
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American Journal of Psychiatry, 162, 1680-1687.
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Biological Psychiatry, 57, 1209-1211.
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The effects of progesterone pretreatment on the response to oral d-amphetamine in women
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Hormones and Behavior, 58, 533-543.
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Journal of Affective Disorders, 133, 600-606.
Do executive and reactive disinhibition mediate the effects of familial substance use disorders on adolescent externalizing outcomes?
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Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 12, 528-542.
Interacting mechanisms of impulsivity in bipolar disorder and antisocial personality disorder
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Journal of Psychiatry Research, 45, 1477-1482.
Criminal conviction, impulsivity, and course of illness in bipolar disorder
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Bipolar Disorders, 13, 173-181.
Different measures of impulsivity in patients with anxiety disorders: A case control study
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Psychiatry Research, 197, 231-236.
The relationship between self-report and lab task conceptualizations of impulsivity
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Journal of Research in Personality, 46, 121-124.
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Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 42, 197-209.
Neurocognitive performance in drug-dependent males and females with posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms
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Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 34, 521-530.
Traumatic brain injury, executive functioning, and suicidal behavior: A brief report
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Rehabilitation Psychology, 57, 337-341.
Working memory load modulation of parieto-frontal connections: Evidence from dynamic causal modeling
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Human Brain Mapping, 33, 1850-1867
The relationship between impulsive choice and impulsive action: a cross-species translational study
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Profile of male adolescents with conduct disorder on intellectual efficacy, cognitive flexibility, cognitive coping, impulsivity and alexithymia: A comparison with high-risk controls
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European Journal of Psychiatry, 26, 215-226.
Volunteerism and self-selection bias in human positron emission tomography neuroimaging research
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Brain Imaging and Behavior, 7, 163-176.
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The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 201, 116-123
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Journal of Psychopharmacology, 27, 801-807.
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Pre-attentive information processing and impulsivity in bipolar disorder.
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An investigation of the effects of antiretroviral central nervous system penetration effectiveness on procedural learning in HIV+ drug users
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Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 35, 915-925.
Toward a theory of distinct types of “impulsive” behaviors: A meta-analysis of self-report and behavioral measures
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Psychological Bulletin, 140, 374-408.
Heroin and amphetamine users display opposite relationships between trait and neurobehavioral dimensions of impulsivity
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Addictive Behavior, 39, 652-629.
Alcohol intoxication alters cognitive skills mediated by frontal and temporal brain regions
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Brain and Cognition, 85, 271-276.
Executive functioning and suicidal behavior among veterans with and without a history of traumatic brain injury.
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Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 96, 1411-1418.
Allopregnanolone association with psychophysiological and cognitive functions during acute smoking abstinence in premenopausal women.
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Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 23, 22-28.
Sex differences in cognitive and motor impulsivity among users of different classes of drugs in protracted abstinence
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Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 146, e24.
Attentional capacities of children with autism spectrum disorder
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Neuropsychiatrie de l Enfance et de l Adolescence, 60, S208
Verbal versus physical aggression in Intermittent Explosive Disorder.
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Psychiatry Research, 225, 531-539.
Trait impulsivity and increased pre-attentional sensitivity to intense stimuli in bipolar disorder and controls
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Personality and Individual Differences, 75, 190-194.
Further evidence of the heteroogeneous nature of impulsivity.
Caswell AJ, Bond R, Duka T, Morgan MJ (2015).

Pesonality and Individual Differences, 76, 68-74.
Neurocognitive and psychiatric dimensions of hot, but not cool, impulsivity predict HIV sexual risk behaviors among drug users in protracted abstinence.
Wilson, M. J., and Vassileva, J. (2016).

American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 42, 231-241.
The effects of oral d-amphetamine on impulsivity in smoked and intranasal cocaine users.
Reed, S. C., Evans, S. M. (2016).

Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 163, 141-152.
Utility of machine-learning approaches to identify behavioral markers for Substance Use Disorders: Impulsivity dimensions as predictors of current Cocaine Dependence
Ahn, W. Y., Ramesh, D., Moeller, F. G., and Vassileva, J. (2016).

Frontiers in Psychiatry, http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2016.00034
Machine-learning identifies substance-specific behavioral markers for opiate and stimulant dependence.
Ahn, W.Y., and Vassileva, J. (2016).

Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 161, 247-257.
Factors associated with money mismanagement among adults with severe mental illness and substance abuse
Moore, BA, Black AC, Rosen MI. (2016).

International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 14, 400-409.
Do individuals higher in impulsivity drink more impulsively? A pilot study within a high risk sample of young adults.
Stevens AK, Littlefield AK, Talley AE, Brown JL. (2016).

Addictive Behavior, 65, 147-153.
The effects of heroin administration and drug cues on impulsivity
Jones JD, Vadhan NP, Luba RR, Comer SD. (2016).

Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 38, 709-720.
Using contingency management procedures to reduce at-risk drinking in heavy drinkers
Dougherty, D. M., Lake, S. L., Hill-Kapturczak, N., Liang, Y., Karns, T. E., Mullen, J., and Roache, J. D. (2015).

Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 39, 109-121.
Reliability estimates for the Immediate and Delayed Memory Tasks.
Mathias, C. W., Marsh, D. M., and Dougherty, D. M. (2002).

Perceptual and Motor Skills, 95, 559-569.
Effects of tryptophan depletion and a simulated alcohol binge on impulsivity.
Dougherty, D. M., Mullen, J., Hill-Kapturczak, N., Liang, Y., Karns, T. E., Lake, S. L., Mathias, C. M., and Roache, J. D. (2015).

Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 23, 109-121.
Adults with a family history of alcohol related problems are more impulsive on measures of response initiation and response inhibition.
Acheson, A., Richard, D. M., Mathias, C. W., and Dougherty, D. M. (2011).

Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 117, 198-203.
Effects of acute tryptophan depletion on three types of behavioral impulsivity.
Dougherty, D. M., Richard, D. M., James, L. M., and Mathias, C. W. (2010).

International Journal of Tryptophan Research, 3, 99-111.
Distinctions in behavioral impulsivity: Implications for substance abuse research.
Dougherty, D. M., Mathias, C. W., Marsh-Richard, D. M., Furr, R. M., Nouvion, S. O., and Dawes, M. A. (2009)

Addictive Disorders & Their Treatment, 8, 61-73.
Fifty years of the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale: An update and review.
Stanford, M. S., Mathias, C. W., Dougherty, D. M., Lake, S. L., Anderson, N. E., and Patton, J. H. (2009).

Personality and Individual Differences, 47, 385-395.
A test of alcohol dose effects on multiple behavioral measures of impulsivity.
Dougherty, D. M., Marsh-Richard, D. M., Hatzis, E. S., Nouvion, S. O., and Mathias, C. W. (2008).

Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 96, 111-120.
The effects of alcohol on laboratory-measured impulsivity after L-Tryptophan depletion or loading.
Dougherty, D. M., Marsh, D. M., Mathias, C. W., Dawes, M. A., Bradley, D. M., Morgan, C. J., and Badawy, A. A.-B. (2007).

Psychopharmacology, 193, 137-150.
Behavioral impulsivity in adolescents with Conduct Disorder who use Marijuana.
Dougherty, D. M., Mathias, C. W., Liguori, A., Marsh, D. M. Dawes, M. A. and Moeller, F. G. (2007).

Addictive Disorders and Their Treatment, 6, 43-50.
Manic symptoms and impulsivity during bipolar depressive episodes.
Swann, A. C., Gerard Moeller, F., Steinberg, J. L., Schneider, L., Barratt, E. S., and Dougherty, D. M. (2007).

Bipolar Disorders, 9, 206-212
Increased impulsivity associated with severity of suicide attempt history in patients with Bipolar Disorder.
Swann, A. C., Dougherty, D. M., Pazzaglia, P. J., Pham, M., Steinberg, J. L., and Moeller, F. G. (2005).

American Journal of Psychiatry, 162, 1680-1687.
Age at first drink relates to behavioral measures of impulsivity: The Immediate and Delayed Memory Tasks.
Dougherty, D. M., Mathias, C. W., Lee, M. A., and Marsh, D. M. (2004).

Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 28, 408-414.
Suicidal behaviors and drug abuse: Impulsivity and its assessment.
Dougherty, D. M., Mathias, C. W., Marsh, D. M., Moeller, F. G., and Swann, A. S. (2004).

Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 76, 93-105.
Laboratory measured behavioral impulsivity relates to suicide attempt history.
Dougherty, D. M., Mathias, C. W., Marsh, D. M., Papageorgiou, T. D., Swann, A. C., and F. G. Moeller (2004).

Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 34, 374-385.
Functional MRI study of working memory in MDMA users.
Moeller, F. G., Steinberg, J. L., Dougherty, D. M., Narayana, P. A., Kramer, L., and Renshaw, P. F. (2004).

Psychopharmacology, 177, 185-194.
Impulsivity: A link between bipolar disorder and substance abuse.
Swann, A. C., Dougherty, D. M., Pazzaglia, P. J., Pham, M., and Moeller, F. G. (2004).

Bipolar Disorders, 6, 204-212.
Behavioral impulsivity paradigms: A comparison in hospitalized adolescents with disruptive behavior disorders.
Dougherty, D. M., Bjork, J. M., Harper, R. A., Marsh, D. M., Moeller, F. G., Mathias, C. W, and Swann, A. C. (2003).

Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 44, 1145-1157.
Validation of the Immediate and Delayed Memory Tasks in hospitalized adolescents with disruptive behavior disorders.
Dougherty, D. M., Bjork, J. M., Harper, R. A., Mathias, C. W., Moeller, F. G., and Marsh, D. M. (2003).

Psychological Record, 53, 509-532.
Familial transmission of continuous performance test behavior: Attentional and impulsive response characteristics.
Dougherty, D. M., Bjork, J. M., Moeller, F. G., Harper, R. A., Marsh, D. M., Mathias, C. W., and Swann, A. C. (2003).

Journal of General Psychology, 130, 5-21.
Immediate and Delayed Memory Tasks: A computerized behavioral measure of memory, attention and impulsivity.
Dougherty, D. M., Marsh, D. M., Mathias, C. W., and Steinberg, J. L. (2002).

Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 34, 391-398.
Comparison of women with high and low trait impulsivity using laboratory impulsivity models of response-disinhibition and reward-choice.
Marsh, D. M., Dougherty, D. M., Mathias, C. W., Moeller, F. G., and Hicks, L. R. (2002).

Personality and Individual Differences, 33, 1291-1310.
Two models of impulsivity: Relationship to personality traits and psychopathology.
Swann, A. C., Bjork, J. M., Moeller, F. G., and Dougherty, D. M. (2002).

Biological Psychiatry, 51, 988-994.
Effects of Moderate and High Doses of Alcohol on Attention, Impulsivity, Discriminability, and Response Bias in Immediate and Delayed Memory Task Performance.
Dougherty, D. M., Marsh, D. M., Moeller, F. G., Chokshi, R. V., and Rosen, V. C. (2000).

Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 24, 1702-1711.
A test of the psychometric characteristics of the BIS-Brief among three groups of youth
Mathias, C. W., Stanford, M. S., Liang, Y., Goros, M., Charles, N. E., Sheftall, A. H., Mullen, J., Hill-Kapturczak, N., Acheson, A., Olvera, R. L., and Dougherty, D. M. (2018).

Psychological Assessment, 30, 847-865.